Much research has found disrupted executive functioning (EF) in deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) children; while some theories emphasize the role of auditory deprivation, others posit delayed language experience as the primary cause. This study investigated the role of language and auditory experience in parent-reported EF for 123 preschool-aged children (M-age = 60.1 months, 53.7% female, 84.6% White). Comparisons between DHH and typically hearing children exposed to language from birth (spoken or signed) showed no significant differences in EF despite drastic differences in auditory input. Linear models demonstrated that earlier language exposure predicted better EF (beta = .061-.341), while earlier auditory exposure did not. Few participants exhibited clinically significant executive dysfunction. Results support theories positing that language, not auditory experience, scaffolds EF development.

Relational language is thought to influence mathematical skills. This study examines the association between relational language and number relation skills-knowledge of cardinal, ordinal, and spatial principles-among 104 U.S. kindergartners (5.9 years; 44% boys; 37% White, 25% Black, 14% Asian, 24% other) in the 2017-2018 academic year. Controlling for general verbal knowledge, executive function, and counting and number identification skills, relational language predicted later number relation skills, specifically number line estimation, beta = .30. Relational language did not differentially predict number line estimation performance in children with low or high number relation skills, likely due to the restricted ranges of data within subgroups. Number relation skills, specifically number line estimation and number ordering, may be a pathway between relational language and mathematical skills.

This research examined parents' involvement in children's math homework and activities. During 2017 to 2019, American parents (N = 483; 80% mothers; 67% white) of young elementary school children (M-age = 7.47 years; 50% girls) reported on their math helping self-efficacy; they also reported on their involvement in children's math homework and activities daily for 12 days. At this time and a year later, children's math motivation and achievement were assessed. Parents' involvement in homework (vs. activities) was more affectively negative (d = .34), particularly among parents low in self-efficacy (d = .23). The more affectively negative parents' involvement, particularly in homework, the poorer children's later math motivation and achievement (beta s = -.09 to .20).

Recent work has probed the developmental mechanisms that promote fair sharing. This work investigated 2.5- to 5.5-year-olds' (N = 316; 52% female; 79% White; data collected 2016-2018) sharing behavior in relation to three cognitive correlates: number knowledge, working memory, and cognitive control. In contrast to working memory and cognitive control, number knowledge was uniquely associated with fair sharing even after controlling for the other correlates and for age. Results also showed a causal effect: After a 5-min counting intervention (vs. a control), children improved their fair sharing behavior from pre-test to post-test. Findings are discussed in light of how social, cognitive, and motivational factors impact sharing behavior.

We examined 6- to 9-year-olds' (N = 60, 35 girls, 34% White, 23% Hispanic, 2% Black/African American, 2% Asian/Asian American, 22% Mixed Ethnicity/Race, 17% Unavailable, collected April–September 2019 in Providence, RI, USA) first-person perspectives on their exploration of museum exhibits. We coded goal setting, goal completion, and behaviors that reflected changes to how goals were accomplished. Whether children played collaboratively related to how often they revised behaviors to accomplish goals (OR = 2.14). When asked to reflect on their play, older children related talk about goals with behavioral revisions, demonstrating that children develop the ability to reflect on their goals when they watch their behaviors change (OR = 1.23). We discuss how these results inform the development of metacognitive reflection on learning through exploration. © 2022 The Authors. Child Development © 2022 Society for Research in Child Development.

A new parent-report measure was used to examine parents' person and process responses to children's math performance. Twice over a year from 2017 to 2020, American parents (N = 546; 80% mothers, 20% other caregivers; 62% white, 21% Black, 17% other) reported their responses and math beliefs; their children's (M-age = 7.48 years; 50% girls, 50% boys) math adjustment swas also assessed. Factor analyses indicated parents' person and process responses to children's math success and failure represent four distinct, albeit related, responses. Person (vs. process) responses were less common and less likely to accompany views of math ability as malleable and failure as constructive (|r|s = .16-.23). The more parents used person responses, the poorer children's later math adjustment (|beta|s = .06-.16).

Analogy is a central component of human cognition. Analogical mapping of similarities between pieces of information present in our experiences supports cognitive and social development, classroom learning, and creative insights and innovation. To date, analogical mapping has primarily been studied within separate modalities of information (e.g., verbal analogies between words, visuo-spatial analogies between objects). However, human experience, in development and adulthood, includes highly variegated information (e.g., words, sounds, objects) received via multiple sensory and information-processing pathways (e.g., visual vs. auditory pathways). Whereas cross-modal correspondences (e.g., between pitch and height) have been observed, the correspondences were between individual items, rather than between relations. Thus, analogical mapping (characterized by second-order relations between relations) has not been directly tested as a basis for cross-modal correspondence. Here, we devised novel cross-modality analogical stimuli (lines-to-sounds, lines-to-words, words-to-sounds) that explicated second-order comparisons between relations. In four samples across three studies-participants demonstrated well-above-chance identification of cross-modal second-order relations, providing robust evidence of analogy across modalities. Further, performance across all analogy types was explained by a single factor, indicating a modality-general analogical ability (i.e., an analo-g factor). Analo-g explained performance overand-above fluid intelligence as well as verbal and spatial abilities, though a stronger relationship to verbal than visuo-spatial ability emerged, consistent with verbal/semantic contributions to analogy. The present data suggests novel questions about our ability to find/learn second-order relations among the diverse information sources that populate human experience, and about cross-modal human and AI analogical mapping in developmental, educational, and creative contexts.

Implicit learning refers to learning without conscious awareness of the content acquired. Theoretical frameworks of human cognition suggest that intuitions develop based on incomplete perceptions of regularity during implicit learning and, in turn, lead to the development of more explicit, consciously-accessible knowledge. Surprisingly, however, this putative information processing pathway (i.e., implicit learning. intuition. explicit knowledge) has yet to be empirically demonstrated. The present study investigated the relationship between implicit learning, intuitions, and explicit knowledge using a modified Serial Reaction Time Task. Results indicate that intuitions of implicitly-learned patterns emerge prior to the development of explicit knowledge. Moreover, intuition timing and accuracy were significantly associated with accuracy of explicit reports. We did not, however, find that stronger implicit learners developed more accurate intuitions. Our findings suggest a crucial role of intuition in the formation of explicit knowledge from implicit learning.

Social support has a well-documented impact on adolescent educational success. Nonetheless, there has been less focus on the relationship between social supports and educational attainment for Latinas. Using a sample of 138 Hispanic females (ages 25-31) from an ongoing longitudinal National Science Foundation (NSF)-funded study (2004-present), we identified key sources of social support (family, teachers, and peers) and types of social support (emotional, informational, and instrumental) in the educational pipeline of Hispanic females. We also examined the associations between social supports and their educational attainment. Through descriptive analyses, we found that family was perceived to provide the most support followed by peers and teachers in adolescence. Through regression analyses, we found that family support positively predicted their educational attainment. Our findings highlight the importance of family-rendered support for educational attainment while also expanding our understanding of the social support mechanisms for Hispanic females.

Studies have proven that providing on-demand assistance, additional instruction on a problem when a student requests it, improves student learning in online learning environments. Additionally, crowdsourced, on-demand assistance generated from educators in the field is also effective. However, when provided on-demand assistance in these studies, students received assistance using problem-based randomization, where each condition represents a different assistance, for every problem encountered. As such, claims about a given educator's effectiveness are provided on a per-assistance basis and not easily generalizable across all students and problems. This work aims to provide stronger claims on which educators are the most effective at generating on-demand assistance. Students will receive on-demand assistance using educator-based randomization, where each condition represents a different educator who has generated a piece of assistance, allowing students to be kept in the same condition over longer periods of time. Furthermore, this work also attempts to find additional benefits to providing students assistance generated by the same educator compared to a random assistance available for the given problem. All data and analysis being conducted can be found on the Open Science Foundation website (https://osf.io/zcbjx/).