Creative thinking is thought to be supported by both spontaneous associative and controlled executive processes. Recently, a new measure of associative cognition has been developed-forward flow-which uses computational semantic models (e.g., latent semantic analysis; LSA) to capture how far people travel in semantic space during a chained free association task. The present research aims to extend the psychometrics of forward flow by 1) leveraging multiple computational semantic models for forward flow computation (reliability) and 2) testing how this metric of associative ability relates to divergent creative thinking (validity). In addition, using structural equation modeling, we test dual-process theories of creative cognition by examining the relative contribution of associative and executive abilities to divergent thinking. Study 1 (n = 151) finds moderately improved reliability of forward flow using the new multi-model approach (compared to LSA only), as well as positive effects of both forward flow (beta = .48) and general intelligence (beta = .36) on divergent thinking (human creativity ratings) in the same structural regression model. This pattern of results was replicated in Study 2 (n = 150), which showed large effects of forward flow (beta = .42) and general intelligence (beta = .46) on divergent thinking. The results expand the psychometrics of forward flow and provide new evidence for dual process models of creative cognition.

Phillips et al. present a number of arguments for the premise that knowledge is more basic than belief. Although their arguments are coherent and sound, they do not directly address numerous cases in which belief appears to be a developmental precursor to knowledge. I describe several examples, not necessarily as a direct challenge, but rather to better understand their framework.

We agree that the approximate number system (ANS) truly represents number. We endorse the authors' conclusions on the arguments from confounds, congruency, and imprecision, although we disagree with many claims along the way. Here, we discuss some complications with the meanings that under-gird theories in numerical cognition, and with the language we use to communicate those theories.

In this work, we address structural, iconic and social dimensions of the emergence of phonological systems in two emerging sign languages. A comparative analysis is conducted of data from a village sign language (Central Taurus Sign Language; CTSL) and a community sign language (Nicaraguan Sign Language; NSL). Both languages are approximately 50 years old, but the sizes and social structures of their respective communities are quite different. We find important differences between the two languages' handshape inventories. CTSL's handshape inventory has changed more slowly than NSL's across the same time period. In addition, while the inventories of the two languages are of similar size, handshape complexity is higher in NSL than in CTSL. This work provides an example of the unique and important perspective that emerging sign languages offer regarding longstanding questions about how phonological systems emerge.

Generating creative ideas involves flexibly combining concepts stored in memory. Although memory provides a foundation for creative thought, existing associations can also constrain idea generation by acting as a source of interference, particularly when salient and unoriginal information becomes activated. Overcoming fixating effects of salient associations is therefore required to generate novel associations. Although previous research has explored fixation effects in verbal creativity, less is known about how it affects the generation of visual associations. In the present research, we investigated the impact of priming salient associations on the generation of creative visual ideas. In an initial pilot study, participants were shown ambiguous images and asked to provide labels describing them; from these labels, 2 subsets were selected based on their relative frequency in the sample (i.e., high- and low-frequency labels). In 2 experiments, we then tested whether priming participants with these high- and low-frequency labels impacted the subsequent generation of new creative labels. Across both experiments, we found that high-frequency labels had a constraining effect on idea generation: Participants took significantly longer to generate their first response and generated fewer total responses in the high-frequency condition. Moreover, visuospatial intelligence (Gv) reduced susceptibility to this constraining effect, with high-Gv participants generating more creative labels in the high-frequency condition, pointing to a potential inhibitory benefit of Gv. The findings indicate that salient associations have a constraining effect on visual idea generation-even when these associations are linked to ambiguous images-and that Gv may support creative thinking via increased inhibitory control.

Objectives: Academia is grappling with how to address persistent underrepresentation and reduce inequities. With so many diversity-enhancing initiatives underway, some within the academic community might experience diversity fatigue, a construct we use to understand majority groups' feelings of weariness toward diversity efforts. Method: For our testing purposes, we focused on ethnic and minority underrepresentation, and collected data in four studies from 473 White American students and faculty. Using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and latent profile analysis, we develop and confirm the single factor structure of the final 6-item Diversity Fatigue scale. We measured associations with other established measures and examined the strength of the association between diversity fatigue and faculty's support for a diversity-enhancing intervention. Results: Results demonstrated scale reliability, convergent validity with system-justifying beliefs, and offer suggestive evidence of discriminant validity with inclusion concerns and implicit race-based associations. Although mean levels of diversity fatigue were low overall, diversity fatigue scores were related to concerns about the effort involved with diversity work and were significantly associated with faculty's motivation to adopt a diversity-enhancing classroom activity. Conclusions: Diversity fatigue in academia is a dampening in people's response to or enthusiasm for efforts that improve the experience of underrepresented people. This state experience is connected to system-justifying beliefs and is related to concerns about the effort required to do diversity interventions. Understanding and measuring this construct has implications for the psychology of intergroup relations, as well as practical implications for campus communities committed to diversity programs.

Identifying meaningful cognitive and noncognitive predictors of mathematical competence is critical for developing targeted interventions for students struggling with mathematics. Here, 317 students' short-term verbal memory. verbal and visuospatial working memory, complex spatial abilities, intelligence, and mathematics attitudes and anxiety were assessed. and their teachers reported on their attentive behavior in 7th-grade mathematics classrooms. Bayesian regression models revealed that complex spatial abilities and in-class attention were the most plausible predictors of 7th-grade mathematics, but not word reading achievement, controlling for prior mathematics achievement. These results were confirmed with multilevel models that revealed interactions between these factors and prior achievement. The largest gains were among students with strong mathematical competencies in 6th grade, and average or better in-class attention in 7th grade as well as above average spatial abilities. High mathematics anxiety was associated with lower attention and through this indirectly influenced achievement gains. These results have implications for how to best target interventions for students at risk for long-term difficulties with mathematics.

Grit is defined as passion and perseverance for achieving long-term goals and consists of two proposed subcomponents: consistency of interests and perseverance of effort. It has become a much-discussed construct even though research on its underlying factor structure has produced inconclusive results. Furthermore, grit as measured by its most frequently used measure, the Grit-S, does not clearly define long term or include the word passion. In addition, only a few studies have looked at factor structure variation and predictive validity of grit in different age and cultural groups. We examined, using state of the art multidimensional item response models and structural equation models, the factor structure of both the Grit-S and a newly developed scale (LT-Grit scale) that specifies what is meant by long term. Participants included 1,250 U.S. high school students, 600 U.S. college students, and 500 Korean college students. We found varying factor structures for the Grit-S and a stable one-factor structure for LT-Grit, across age and culture. Perseverance of effort as measured by the Grit-S was the strongest predictor of grades in the three samples. LT-Grit predicted grades only in the U.S. high school and Korean college samples. Thus, there is no evidence that a consistent grit factor or factors exist across age and culture.

This study explores the role of the instructor's face and eye gaze as social and attentional cues in promoting learning from a video lecture on kidney physiology. In a 2 x 2 between-subjects design, 133 college students were randomly assigned to a gaze behavior condition and a video whiteboard type condition. The instructor either shifted her gaze between the learner and board (shifting) or only gazed at the board (fixed), and the instructor's gaze was either occluded (conventional whiteboard) or visible (transparent whiteboard) when facing the board. Learners' perceived engagement, gaze behavior, and learning were measured. Students in the conventional whiteboard group reported higher engagement and achieved higher posttest scores than students in the transparent whiteboard group (main effect of whiteboard), particularly when the instructor shifted her gaze between the learner and the board (whiteboard by gaze interaction). Furthermore, students in the conventional whiteboard condition attended more to the learning material on the board, whereas students in the transparent whiteboard group attended more to the instructor. Overall, learning was better when the instructor's social cues promoted engagement (i.e., by shifting gaze) without distracting learners from attending to the instructor's cues to attend to the whiteboard (i.e., by conventional whiteboards). Educational Impact and Implications Statement There is a growing demand for online courses but there are few validated practices to guide instructors on how to design and delivery effective online lessons. This study investigates whether an instructor's facing direction and eye gaze behavior can be used as cues to support student engagement, attention, and learning. Access to the instructor's eye gaze varied by whether she looked at the student and whether her face was visible to the students. We found that the instructor's face and eye gaze can direct students' attention during a video lecture, but also it may interfere with learning when students should attend to information on the board rather than to the instructor. Evidence from this study suggests that instructors should choreograph how they use their behavioral cues to guide students through a video lesson.