Physical and virtual experimentation are thought to have different affordances for supporting students' learning. Research investigating the use of physical and virtual experiments to support students' learning has identified a variety of, sometimes conflicting, outcomes. Unanswered questions remain about how physical and virtual experiments may impact students' learning and for which contexts and content areas they may be most effective. Using a quasi-experimental design, we examined eighth grade students' (N=100) learning of physics concepts related to pulleys depending on the sequence of physical and virtual labs they engaged in. Five classes of students were assigned to either the: physical first condition (PF) (n=55), where students performed a physical pulley experiment and then performed the same experiment virtually, or virtual first condition (VF) (n=45), with the opposite sequence. Repeated measures ANOVA's were conducted to examine how physical and virtual labs impacted students' learning of specific physics concepts. While we did not find clear-cut support that one sequence was better, we did find evidence that participating in virtual experiments may be more beneficial for learning certain physics concepts, such as work and mechanical advantage. Our findings support the idea that if time or physical materials are limited, using virtual experiments may help students understand work and mechanical advantage.

While motivational changes towards science are common during adolescence, our work asks which perceived classroom experiences are most strongly related to these changes. Additionally, we examine which experiences are most strongly associated with learning classroom content. In particular, using self-reports from a sample of approximately 3000 middle school students, this study investigates the influence of perceived science classroom experiences, namely student engagement and perceived success, on motivational change (fascination, values, competency belief) and content knowledge. Controlling for demographic information, school effects, and initial levels of motivation and content knowledge, we find that dimensions of engagement (affect, behavioural/cognitive) and perceived success are differentially associated with changes in particular motivational constructs and learning. Affective engagement is positively associated with motivational outcomes and negatively associated with learning outcomes, behavioural-cognitive engagement is associated only with learning, and perceived success is related only to motivational outcomes. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

In the biological sciences, very little is known about the mechanisms by which doctoral students acquire the skills they need to become independent scientists. In the postsecondary biology education literature, identification of specific skills and effective methods for helping students to acquire them are limited to undergraduate education. To establish a foundation from which to investigate the developmental trajectory of biologists' research skills, it is necessary to identify those skills which are integral to doctoral study and distinct from skills acquired earlier in students' educational pathways. In this context, the current study engages the framework of threshold concepts to identify candidate skills that are both obstacles and significant opportunities for developing proficiency in conducting research. Such threshold concepts are typically characterised as transformative, integrative, irreversible, and challenging. The results from interviews and focus groups with current and former doctoral students in cellular and molecular biology suggest two such threshold concepts relevant to their subfield: the first is an ability to effectively engage primary research literature from the biological sciences in a way that is critical without dismissing the value of its contributions. The second is the ability to conceptualise appropriate control conditions necessary to design and interpret the results of experiments in an efficient and effective manner for research in the biological sciences as a discipline. Implications for prioritising and sequencing graduate training experiences are discussed on the basis of the identified thresholds.

Educational gradients in health status, morbidity, and mortality are well established, but which aspects of schooling produce those gradients is only partially understood. We draw on newly available data from the midlife follow-up of the High School and Beyond sophomore cohort to analyze the relationship between students' level of coursework in high school and their long-term health outcomes. We additionally evaluate the mediating roles of skill development, postsecondary attendance and degree attainment, and occupational characteristics. We find that students who took a medium- to high-level course of study in high school have better self-reported health and physical functioning in midlife, even net of family background, adolescent health, baseline skills, and school characteristics. The association partially operates through pathways into postsecondary education. Our findings have implications for both educational policy and research on the educational gradient in health.

Problem-solving strategies learned by physics undergraduates should prepare them for real-world contexts as they transition from students to professionals. Yet, graduate students in physics-intensive research face problems that go beyond problem sets they experienced as undergraduates and are solved by different strategies than are typically learned in undergraduate coursework. This paper expands the notion of problem solving by characterizing the breadth of problems and problem-solving processes carried out by graduate students in physics-intensive research. We conducted semi-structured interviews with ten graduate students to determine the routine, difficult, and important problems they engage in and problem-solving strategies they found useful in their research. A qualitative typological analysis resulted in the creation of a three-dimensional framework: context, activity, and feature (that made the problem challenging). Problem contexts extended beyond theory and mathematics to include interactions with lab equipment, data, software, and people. Important and difficult contexts blended social and technical skills. Routine problem activities were typically well defined (e.g., troubleshooting), while difficult and important ones were more open ended and had multiple solution paths (e.g., evaluating options). In addition to broadening our understanding of problems faced by graduate students, our findings explore problem-solving strategies (e.g., breaking down problems, evaluating options, using test cases or approximations) and characteristics of successful problem solvers (e.g., initiative, persistence, and motivation). Our research provides evidence of the influence that problems students are exposed to have on the strategies they use and learn. Using this evidence, we have developed a preliminary framework for exploring problems from the solver's perspective. This framework will be examined and refined in future work. Understanding problems graduate students face and the strategies they use has implications for improving how we approach problem solving in undergraduate physics and physics education research.

Multiple reasons shape how young people and families choose to participate in informal learning programs at museums and other settings. Youth interest is likely a factor, but so might be geographic proximity, institutional affiliation, household income, and race/ethnicity. We examined the relative impact of these factors through a comparative study of two art programs; one a small, neighborhood-based organization focused on art and STEM, and the other a program in a well-established art museum. The smaller program tended to draw youth from closer geographic proximity. Interest in art drove attendance at both programs, but institutional membership was also important. Demographic factors also were a factor, and race/ethnicity was more strongly associated with program placement than household income. We discuss the importance of better understanding of such factors as museums and other programs continue to grow as important sites for learning.

In this paper, we review computer-based assessment for learning (CBAfL), in elementary and secondary education, as a viable way to merge instruction and assessment of students' developing proficiencies. We begin by contextualizing our topic relative to summative and formative assessment before presenting the current literature, which we categorized into the following: (a) supplementary use in classrooms, (b) web-based, and (c) data-driven, continuous CBAfL. Examples of research studies per category are provided. Findings show that using CBAfL in the classroom, via the Internet, or embedded in a game, generally enhances learning and other outcomes across a range of content areas (e.g. biology, math, and programming). One conclusion is that feedback, to be most beneficial to learning, should not be overly complex and must be used to be effective. Findings also showed that the quality of the assessment (i.e. validity, reliability, and efficiency) is unimpaired by the inclusion of feedback. The possibilities created by advances in the learning sciences, measurement, and technology have paved the way toward new assessment approaches that will support personalized learning and that can accurately measure and support complex competencies. The next steps involve evaluating the new assessments regarding their psychometric properties and support of learning. Lay Description: What is currently known about computer-based assessment for learning (CBAfL)? Early CBAfL systems were divided into linear and branching programs with no diagnostics and evolved into systems possessing more personalized/adaptive remediation with AI. Current CBAfL can support a range of competencies in various digital environments. Advanced learning analytic methods include learning analytics and stealth assessment. What our paper adds to what is already known about CBA for learning? Trends in our review suggest CBAs will improve in personalizing learning in a variety of contexts. Innovative CBAfL techniques will move beyond the laboratory and into the mainstream. Boundaries between instruction, learning and assessment will eventually become blurred, thus removing the need for high-stake tests of learning. What are the implications of our topic for practitioners? With CBAfL advances, teachers will have more time to provide targeted support to learners. Students would not need to worry about taking exams if CBAfL is continuous and formative. Educators will be able to provide personalized learning experiences for diverse students. Students will be equipped with the knowledge and skills needed to succeed in the 21st century. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

Studies of procedural and conceptual learning typically focus on the cognitive processes involved; less attention is paid to student motivation. Motivation research has established a connection to general academic achievement, but less is known about how motivation relates to different types of learning. We aim to integrate this prior work on cognition and motivation, testing how students' motivation is related to different types of learning outcomes. Specifically, we measured 6th grade science students' self-efficacy and achievement goals via self-report as well as performance on both procedural and conceptual assessment items during a force and motion unit. Results revealed students' self-efficacy was significantly related to later conceptual, but not procedural, knowledge. In addition, students' achievement goals, specifically mastery-approach goals, were positively related to their self-efficacy beliefs.